Collated by Tusar Nath Mohapatra My life as ideology
Yes, Akbar’s religious policies, particularly the syncretic and rational spirit underlying Din-i-Ilahi, had a distinct intellectual influence on Raja Ram Mohan Roy. While Roy did not copy Din-i-Ilahi as a formal blueprint, he deeply admired and drew from the legacy of Mughal liberal rationalism established by Akbar, Abu'l Fazl, and Dara Shikoh. [1]
Historians and researchers highlight this relationship through several shared concepts:
1. The Heritage of Indo-Persian Rationalism
Before focusing on Western philosophy, Roy’s early education in Patna was heavily shaped by Arabic and Persian texts, Islamic monotheism, and Sufi mysticism. His first major theological work, Tuhfatu'l Muwahhidin ("A Gift to Monotheists," 1803), was written in Persian. In this text, Roy argued for a universal religion based on reason and the "Oneness of God" (Tawhid). In choosing this framework, he directly built upon the intellectual lineage of Akbar and Abu'l Fazl, who had championed human reason over rigid, orthodox dogma centuries earlier. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
2. Universalism and Syncretism
Both Akbar and Roy faced the challenge of a deeply divided, multi-religious Indian society.
- Akbar's Din-i-Ilahi (1582) blended elements of Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity into a unified spiritual code. [6]
- Roy’s Brahmo Samaj (1828) similarly rejected polytheism, idolatry, and sectarian divides. Roy designed the Brahmo Sabha to be a universal space where individuals from any faith—Hindu, Muslim, or Christian—could gather to worship one eternal, formless God. [2, 7, 8, 9]
Both figures shared the core conviction that no single religion holds a monopoly on the ultimate truth. [10, 11]
3. Rejection of Orthodox Priesthood
Akbar sought to minimize the political and social stranglehold of the orthodox Islamic clerics (Ulama) through the Mahzar (Infallibility Decree) of 1579. In the same vein, Raja Ram Mohan Roy spent his life fiercely fighting the dominance of orthodox Brahmin priests, ritualism, and institutionalized social evils like Sati. Both leaders believed that true spirituality should serve the public good (Lokasreya) and social harmony rather than blind ritualism. [2, 6, 9, 12, 13, 14]
Key Distinctions
Despite these similarities, their executions differed:
| Feature | Akbar's Din-i-Ilahi | Roy's Brahmo Samaj |
|---|---|---|
| Central Focus | Centered heavily around Akbar's personal political authority and imperial discipleship. | Rooted in a democratic, public society modeled on modern rationalism and the Vedanta. |
| Scope | Restricted to a small, handpicked circle of royal elites and did not survive his death. | Evolved into a long-lasting, influential social reform movement that defined the Bengal Renaissance. |
(Fun Fact: Roy's close connection to the Mughal line continued later in his life when Akbar's descendant, Mughal Emperor Akbar II, bestowed the title of "Raja" upon him in 1831 and sent him as an ambassador to Britain.) [15]
Would you like to explore how Roy's early Persian writings compared to Mughal texts, or shall we dive into the philosophical differences between Din-i-Ilahi and the Brahmo Samaj?
[11] https://jmcjarj.org
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Din-i-Ilahi was not the harbinger of modernity in India, as historians generally locate the roots of Indian modernity much later, specifically during the 19th-century Bengal Renaissance.
While Emperor Akbar's 1582 syncretic philosophy was revolutionary for its time, it lacked the structural, scientific, and socio-political elements that define "modernity." Instead, Din-i-Ilahi is best understood as a noble, imperial experiment in religious tolerance and political consolidation.
Here is a direct comparison of how Din-i-Ilahi stacks up against the actual forces of Indian modernity:
| Feature | Din-i-Ilahi (16th Century) | Modernity in India (19th Century onward) |
|---|---|---|
| Core Nature | A moral and philosophical code blending elements of Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity. | A socio-political shift defined by rationalism, scientific inquiry, individualism, and humanism. |
| Reach & Scope | Limited to a tiny circle of Akbar's elite courtiers; it never became a mass movement. | Broad societal impact that restructured education, law, gender rights, and political consciousness. |
| Catalyst | Imperial decree and Akbar's personal quest for spiritual truth and political unity (Sulh-i-kul). | Exposure to global ideas, the introduction of the printing press, and a critical re-examination of indigenous traditions. |
| Outcome | Faded away completely after Akbar's death in 1605. | Laid the groundwork for anti-colonial nationalism, secularism, and democratic institutions. |
Why Din-i-Ilahi is often confused with Modernity
It is easy to see why Din-i-Ilahi feels modern. It promoted pluralism, state neutrality toward religion, and rational debate at the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship). These concepts are core pillars of the modern secular Indian state. However, Din-i-Ilahi was fundamentally a medieval, court-centric philosophy designed to center all political and spiritual loyalty on the Emperor himself, rather than an empowering movement based on citizen rights.
The true harbingers of Indian modernity were reform movements led by figures like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Jyotirao Phule, who utilized rationalism to fight social evils like Sati, advocate for women's education, and challenge the caste system.
If you are exploring this for an essay or historical debate, I can help you expand on specific angles. Would you like to explore Akbar's concept of Sulh-i-kul (universal peace), or look closer at the 19th-century reformers who officially ushered in modern Indian thought?
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The premise that Mughal Emperor Akbar's religious and cultural experiments do not receive recognition is highly debated, as he is widely celebrated in mainstream history as "Akbar the Great" for his pluralism. However, the specific reasons his creation of Din-i Ilahi and his multicultural policies face criticism, neglect, or modern re-evaluation stem from a mix of historical reality and contemporary politics.
Historians, political analysts, and religious scholars generally attribute this lack of uncritical celebration to several key factors.
1. It Was Never Actually a "New Religion"
Many modern historians argue that Akbar never intended to start a mainstream, universal religion.
- A Courtly Cult: Most contemporary scholars view Din-i Ilahi (properly called Tauhid-i Ilahi or "Divine Monotheism") as a private, elite discipleship order rather than a missionary religion meant for the public.
- Limited Membership: It had fewer than 20 to 30 official adherents, mostly consisting of close courtiers like Birbal and Abu'l-Fazl. Because it never grew into a popular movement, many historians treat it as a minor political tool for consolidating imperial loyalty rather than a monumental religious shift.
2. Backlash from Contemporary Religious Orthodoxy
Akbar's multiculturalism faced fierce opposition during his own lifetime, which heavily influenced how his legacy was recorded.
- Islamic Clergy (Ulema): Orthodox Muslim scholars, most notably the contemporary historian Badayuni and later the scholar Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, viewed Akbar’s synthesis of Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity as heresy (shirk).
- Erasure by Successors: His own great-grandson, Aurangzeb, fiercely reversed Akbar's pluralistic policies (such as reinstating the jizya tax on non-Muslims), viewing Akbar's spiritual experiments as a dangerous deviation from orthodox Islam.
3. Modern Eurocentric and Colonial Historiography
During the British Raj, colonial historians often downplayed the success of Akbar’s multiculturalism to justify British rule.
- The "Divide and Rule" Narrative: British historical accounts frequently framed Indian history as an endless, irreconcilable conflict between Hindus and Muslims.
- Framing Akbar as an Exception: Instead of recognizing his systems as a viable blueprint for Indian multiculturalism, colonial texts often portrayed Akbar as an isolated anomaly whose ideas immediately failed, reinforcing the idea that India required external British governance to maintain peace.
4. Polarization in Modern South Asian Politics
In contemporary political discourse, Akbar’s legacy is highly polarized, preventing a neutral or universally recognized evaluation of his multiculturalism.
- The Nationalist Critique: In modern India, right-wing political narratives often view the Mughal era through a lens of foreign occupation. Critics argue that Akbar's pluralism was merely a tactical political calculation to pacify the Hindu majority and solidify his rule, rather than a genuine moral pursuit.
- The Pakistani Historical View: In Pakistan's state-backed historical narrative, Akbar's syncretism is often downplayed or viewed negatively because it blurred the distinct identity of Islam in the subcontinent. Figures like Aurangzeb or Ahmad Sirhindi are instead celebrated for "preserving" Islamic purity, which aligns closer to the ideological foundations of the state.
To better understand this historical perspective, we can look closer at specific aspects of his reign. If you are interested, I can provide more details on:
- The specific tenets and rituals of Din-i Ilahi
- How his Sulh-i Kul (Universal Peace) policy functioned in governance
- The writings of his fiercest contemporary critic, Abdul Qadir Badayuni
Which of these areas would you like to explore further?
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The famous text most closely associated with the idea that violence loses its relevance and utility over time is "On Violence" by political theorist Hannah Arendt (originally published as an essay in 1969 before expanding into a book). [1, 2]
The Core Argument
Arendt's central thesis rests on a strict differentiation between power and violence:
- Power is inherently political. It stems from the collective consent, cooperation, and organization of a community acting in unison.
- Violence is instrumental. It relies on implements (like weapons) to force obedience and achieve specific ends.
Because violence relies on coercion rather than genuine consent, Arendt argues that it is ultimately impotent at creating lasting political stability. While violence can easily destroy power, it can never substitute or create it. As a result, when a society or state advances toward authentic democratic institutions and robust civic engagement, violence naturally loses its functional relevance and structural legitimacy. [1]
Other Notable Theories on the Decline of Violence
If you are thinking of a different prominent piece on why violence is fading from relevance, you might be thinking of:
- "Why Violence Is Vanishing" by Steven Pinker: A widely read essay published in The Wall Street Journal (2011) that adapted the core themes of his monumental book, The Better Angels of Our Nature. Pinker argues that human society has steadily grown more peaceful due to the "civilizing process," tracking how nation-states, international trade, literacy, and human rights have rendered historical brutality irrelevant to modern life. [2, 3, 4]
- "Critique of Violence" (Zur Kritik der Gewalt) by Walter Benjamin (1921): A landmark essay exploring the relationship between law and violence. Benjamin discusses how structural state violence eventually unmasks itself as fragile and unstable, losing its existential relevance when confronted by higher revolutionary frameworks. [1]
If you have a specific quote or a particular author in mind, let me know, and I can narrow down the exact text or philosophical framework you're searching for!
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Francis Fukuyama has not completely retracted his core "End of History" thesis, but he has significantly updated, qualified, and shifted his views on state power, economics, and his own political alignment over the decades. [1, 2]
Key Adjustments and Evolutions
- Acknowledgment of Democratic Backsliding: Fukuyama has conceded that his 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man, failed to anticipate the severe 21st-century resurgence of authoritarianism and democratic decay in places like Russia, Turkey, and Hungary. [2, 3]
- Shift Toward Social Democracy: Once associated with neo-conservative circles early in his career, Fukuyama explicitly distanced himself from the political right, describing himself instead as a "classic social democrat" who sees the necessity of state intervention and welfare programs. [1, 4]
- Revisiting Economic Dogma: He has criticized unbridled neoliberal deregulation and the 2008 financial crisis as proof that market capitalism requires careful management and public regulation to prevent severe economic inequality and populist backlash. [4]
- Defense of the Core Idea: Despite these revisions, Fukuyama maintains that his underlying philosophical argument remains valid: no viable, coherent ideological alternative—such as a modernized form of fascism or Soviet-style communism—has emerged to genuinely outperform or supersede the principles of liberal democracy and market-driven economies. [2, 5]
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TN Mohapatra - Nitte Management Review, 2015 - scholar.archive.org
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[PDF] Swami Vivekanand's Concept of 'Spiritual Nationalism': An Inquiry
A Singh
Swami Vivekanand was a great sanyasi and bona fide nationalist. He believes that
spirituality and religion both are the main theme of India. Spiritual nationalism of
Vivekanand is a unique synthesis of India’s cultural heritage, its civilisation and …
spirituality and religion both are the main theme of India. Spiritual nationalism of
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Aesthetics, and the Challenge of Poverty
D Goulet - Conversations and Transformations: Toward a New …, 2002 - books.google.com
… Here we can remember the two famous passages in the writings of Gandhi and Levinas. … that we receive from Sri Aurobindo. But for Sri Aurobindo, before forcing a superficial rec…
Reconciling the Many and the One
JD Long - Handbook of Indic Philosophy and Religion: Classical …, 2026
… Not unlike Sri Aurobindo, we cannot say that Radhakrishnan focused upon
pluralism as such as a major theme of his writing, but it is nevertheless present.
Stung by criticisms of Hindu thought in the Christian missionary schools in which he …
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N Reiss - New Testament Studies, 2026
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Aurobindo illustrates this paradox: … For Sri Aurobindo, divine jailers and their
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Levinas and Aurobindo: Rebirth through Imprisonment
H An - Neue Zeitschrift für Systematische Theologie und …, 2026 - degruyterbrill.com
… This paper examines how Emmanuel Levinas and Sri Aurobindo – writing under political … of suffering: for Levinas, ethical awakening before the face of the Other; for Aurobindo, the …
Literature, Philosophy, and Subaltern Ethics: Dalit, Feminist, and Modern Perspectives
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[B] From Plato to Panini to Levinas: The Problem of Language for Philosophy and Theology
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… , Levinas) but is consistently found in Aurobindo’s understanding of the Gita—which, after all, is both a spiritual text in which God is as directly involved and engaged as possible, and …
[PDF] Examining the Ancient Gana-Sangha's: An Indigenous Epistemology for Sustainable Governance in Contemporary Times
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Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram Publication Department. • Banerjee, P. (2020). …
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Janm līlā Assisted reproductive technology and Hindu narrative imaginary
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… The modern Indian philosopher Sri Aurobindo holds that all matter that is manifest
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15 The structure of thought in Bhagwatpurāna that visualizes ART in the birth of …
exists in an unmanifest form as sat (truth) in Sacchidānanda or the'true Cosmic spirit.
15 The structure of thought in Bhagwatpurāna that visualizes ART in the birth of …
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L Zsolnai - Journal for the Study of Spirituality, 2026
This paper reviews the past 20 years of activities of European SPES, an
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international collaborative network of scholars and practitioners located in Leuven,
Belgium. European SPES is dedicated to promoting spirituality in economic and …
